This paper begins with a definition of ‘culture’ and ‘gender’ in order to develop a common understanding of these terminologies by the readers. Culture is defined as the customs, civilisation and achievements of a particular time or people.

Much of tradition is sacred, essential and good. The positive values must continue to be respected and retained. This paper is however, not referring to those good and nourishing traditions that bring life to a society. Rather this paper is concentrating on those negative practices and customs found in all ethnic groupings that hold women especially, and/ or men enslaved.

Those customs and practices that prevent women especially from developing into full human person intellectually, psychologically, socially, spiritually, politically and economically. Unfortunately, there are still many such traditions present today that cripple men, but more especially women. These traditions prevent them from walking upright with dignity and a true sense of self-worth.

In Zambia, most if not all-ethnic groups are patriarchal, even the ones that are known as matrilineal, decisions are made by maternal uncles or other male relatives from the mother’s side. In patriarchal societies, there are systems in place to reinforce patriarchy, such as law, religion and traditions, which benefit men.

The men are the ones who hold the reins of power and authority. In order to retain this power, men often feel they must oppress and control women. This is accomplished largely through laws and traditions that dominate women. Most men are quite happy with this arrangement, so if women desire change, then women themselves must work together to bring this about. They however need to identify some men who will be allies and work with them to change the patriarchal system.

Gender is an old word that has taken on a new meaning. To understand gender as the distinction between sex is to understand people as women and men.

Sex is a fact of human biology; we are born male or female. It is men who impregnate and women, who conceive, give birth and breastfeed the baby. On this biological differences societies have constructed an edifice of social attitudes and assumptions, behaviours and activities: these are gender roles and identities. Questioning them may appear threatening and attacking the very foundations of our understanding of humanity, our personal and social relations, our culture and traditions.

It is however; very important to understand how we learn to be boys and girls, to become women and men. We need to understand how we define masculine and feminine behaviour; how activities regarded as appropriate for our sex, are taught and the way in which we should relate to one another.

What we learn as girls and boys depends on the society into which we are born, and our position within it, our relative poverty or wealth, and our ethnic group. For unlike sex, gender roles are variable. In some societies, women are farmers, own oxen, and plough their own fields while in others this is ‘against God and nature'.

In yet other instances where war, migration, or other factors, such as the economy here in Zambia, many women have assumed full responsibility for their households. Customs have been modified to enable them to have the means of production to provide for their families. Therefore, gender roles are not only different but also subject to change over time.

Gender is different from sex. For instance, a woman’s role of childbearing is a female sex role since it is biologically determined. However, a woman’s role as a household cook is not biologically

given. Men can, and often do cook. The female role of cooking is socially determined, and it can be called a female gender role not a female sex role.

Another framework used is the traditional division into gender roles. "The attribution of female roles by patriarchal society has historically varied according to the conjuncture and the manner in

which competing social and cultural forces became reconciled within the specific social formations". ² As such the division into gender role varies from one society to another (because it is socially constructed).

Traditionally, there tends to be a lack of distinction between sex roles and gender roles, since only sex differences are admitted. There is a denial of any meaning for the word gender, and therefore an implicit claim that the division of social roles between the genders arises from, and is justified by sexual and biological differences.

It might be claimed that men have better brains and that is why they are more suitable as political leaders. Alternatively, it might be claimed that looking after the home and children is work for which women are biologically suited because they have more caring personalities.

Sexist belief has two levels. At one level, there is the claim that differences of sex justify difference in the division of social roles. At the more patriarchal level, there is the claim that the male domination of positions of authority is based on the biological superiority of males.

The above view shows that there is no equity and equality in the socio-economic and cultural dimensions of our society. Women, children and men together constitute the social, economic and political reality of any society as such; leaving out women and children from this reality is an act of injustice.

In relation to work; both women and men have roles in the spheres of production (of goods and services) and public life, from the community to the governmental level. However, the tasks associated with the reproduction of society (ensuring basic needs at family and household level are met, homes and children are maintained and cared for) fall almost entirely on women’s shoulders. One of the results of this is that, the world over, women have longer working days than men do– if this is not injustice, what is?

Further to that is the reality that most men are denied the full pleasure of parenthood by a culture that insists on men not participating in household chores? Moreover, a man is not taught the satisfaction of cooking. Culture insists that men must always appear strong and never break down or cry even when they lose a beloved one. Hence, men are denied the right to weep and be gentle.

Women are however expected to act weak even when they know they are strong. They

are expected to act dumb and not know a thing. Women are further expected to be emotional and are supposed to be tied down to a home by their children and are denied meaningful employment and equal pay. A man is expected to bear the full financial responsibility for another human being.

Society therefore expects women to be effeminate and men to be masculine. Yet, psychologists actually say that in each human being, there is the anima and animus, and depending on whether one is female or male the anima is more developed and pronounced than the animus and vice versa.

In a mature person, both the anima and animus or female and male characteristics would have been developed creating a balanced mature person. This person will allow the anima or animus to be prominent and active depending on the situation. The individual has therefore, a right to be female or male as the situation calls for it.

Another essential issue is the way work is valued. For all its enormous importance, reproductive work is undervalued – its lack of value is expressed by the failure to recognise that it is ‘real work’. Women who labour in the home commonly say; ‘Oh I

don’t work’ because their work is not recognised and remunerated.

The work of biological and social reproduction is the foundation of human society: the care of children and family, the maintenance of the household, collecting water, and fuel, preparing, processing and cooking food, keeping people and home clean and healthy. These tasks can be arduous and time-consuming --- and taken for granted.

The work, which is generally done by women, is not valued and is not included in development planning. This often leads to disastrous consequences. For example, failure to take into account women’s role as managers of water has resulted in water supply being inefficient.

In some cases women travel long distances to fetch water. This is time consuming considering that these women do also have a series of other different activities lined up for them in order to meet their families' practical needs? To have a better insight of the situation as described above necessitates employment of gender analysis.

Gender analysis looks not only at roles and activities but also at relationships. It asks not only who does what, but also who makes the decisions. It further asks as to whom derives the benefit from uses of resources such as land, or credit. Who controls these resources, and what other factors influence relationships, such as laws about property rights and inheritance?

The analysis reveals that, because of their different gender roles and responsibilities, women and men have different experience and needs. Both women and men play a role in the sphere of productive work and community life, but women’s contribution may be less formal.

While men’s agricultural work may result in a cash income, women may be producing food for family consumption, and the cash value remains hidden. In community life, men generally have the role of public representation; women’s role of organisation may be crucial, but less visible, particularly to outsiders.

In relation to sharing the world’s resources and benefits, gender inequality is very evident. The often-quoted UN statistics still hold true:

Women perform 2/3 of the world’s work; Women earn 1/10 of the world’s income; Women are 2/3 of the world’s illiterates; Women own less than 1/100 of the world’s property.

The two glaring examples of inequality are therefore in the social condition of women and in their social position. In terms of the social condition, women face poverty, heavy workloads, poor health care, etc. Their social, political, economical and cultural positions are relative to men's.

Justice calls that women’s social position, their strategic needs and their problems, which stem from their subordinate position in society, be overcome. Justice calls that we all work to overcome the cultural unjust practices such as cleansing of widows sexually, or subjecting them to inhuman activities.